Devi: The Great Goddess

Always Blissful Mother
by Kamlalakanta Chakrabarti

Mother, you’re always blissful.
You charmed destructive Shiva,
you dance in your own joy,
and clap your hands to keep time.
O Elemental, Eternal One!
Your form is empty space,
yet the moon adorns your brow.
Where did you get your garland of severed heads,
before the universe came into being?
You are the operator,
and we nothing but machines
that run by your rule.
We stay where you put us,
and say what you make us say.
Cursing you, O Destructive One,
restless Kamlalakanta says:
With the sword in your hand
you’ve slaughtered my faith
together with my disbelief.

Hinduism

A fusion of many religious beliefs and philosophical schools. Its origins are mixed and complex: one strand is traced to the Vedas, the sacred literature written around 1100 BC by the Aryans, a people who trickled steadily into the Indian subcontinent between 1800 and 1200 BC; the other strand drew upon the beliefs of the indigenous people of India especially their faith in the efficacy of fertility symbols and faith in the power of the Mother Goddess.

Buddhism

A faith that originated in India about 2,500 years ago, embodies the teachings of the Buddha. He devised a code of actions and thoughts to free humankind from a continual state of desire and egotism.

Jainism

A faith that originated in India in the fifth century B.C. which considered knowledge to be the ultimate way to salvation.

Puja

The act of showing reverence to a god, a spirit, or another aspect of the divine through invocations, prayers, songs and rituals.

Parvati

Parvati’s exquisite smiling face welcomes worshipers who would never have seen her as she appears here. In a temple setting, she would have been draped with silks, adorned with gold and gem-studded jewels and multiple garlands of flowers that would have totally concealed the lines of the sculpture. This bronze is a festival icon carried in procession during every temple festival. The double lotus upon which the goddess stands would have been inset into a rectangular pedestal with holes through it or with lugs attached so that inserted poles could rest on the shoulders of temple officers who carried the image.

Vishnu

Viewed as a savior who has been reborn on earth many times to conquer and balance evil. In each reincarnation, Vishnu is accompanied by an incarnation of his wife Lakshmi.

Shiva

Both the creator and the destroyer. He is frequently depicted with his wife Parvati, who also has numerous traits.

Mohra of Devi

This monumental mask (mohra) of Devi is a super example of the brass mohra tradition in the hills of Himachal Pradesh in northern India. Depictions of Devi and god Shiva in the form of brass or silver mohras are peculiar to the Himalayan regions where until early in this century, wooden masks of deified chieftains were widely worshiped. Groups of mohras are usually secured to chariots and taken out in procession during festivals. However, the extraordinary workmanship of this heavy and unusually large Devi mohra suggests that it was enshrined for worship within an important Himachal temple.

Goddess on a Swing

The Bastar district of Madhya Pradesh (central India) has a vast population of tribal people who have retained old customs. The area abounds with female deities, often called matas, or mothers, some of whom are known and venerated only within a single village. Bastar’s ritual brasses are either worshiped or given as offering to deities in fulfillment of vows. Here the goddess and swing were cast as one piece that was attached to the supporting structure by twisted wire. Plates on which devotees may burn incense pellets are in her hand, balanced on her head, and placed atop the shrine.

Markama

The goddess Markama in the sanctum of her temple in Bissamcuttack, where she is represented by a natural boulder. The goddess’s face is covered with red powder and is decorated with silver eye, tongue, and nose, as well as a diadem. There are seven swords placed on the stone image; one belongs to Markama’s spouse, Niamraja, a deity of the Dongaria Kondh tribe.

At the Hub of Things

Covered in vivid blue powdered pigment, this fiberglass concave hemisphere symbolizes Devi in her deep blue form of Kali (literally, dark-skinned one), the great cosmic mother. On a visit to India in 1979, British sculptor Anish Kapoor was intrigued by the mounds of colored powders piled up in stalls outside Hindu temples. Back in Britain, he started exploring the possibilities of using these powdered pigments, first on their own, and then to cover his fiberglass hemispherical depths — ovals, and rounded cavities — all intended to evoke femininity and the Great Goddess.

The form of this sculpture suggests the hidden depths of the womb, as well as the burial mound. It thus evokes both life and death and speaks in terms of eternity and timelessness. Just as the fascination of the voice rests in the overwhelming power of the notions of fear, darkness, and the unknown, so too the power and enchantment of the goddess Kali is built on feared darkness, and an apprehension of eternity. Gazing into that deep blue void is a dizzying experience that both alarms and exhilarates. This fear and exhilaration are elements celebrated also in the deep blue goddess Kali.

Mahatmya

During the Gupta period (320-647), the goddess, as object of worship, was celebrated in the Devi Mahatmya, a fifth-sixth century Sanskrit text. Through the dynamic narration of three stories about her great feats, the Devi Mahatmya proclaims Devi’s supremacy as the creator of the universe and the one who pervades and sustains creation. Copies of the Devi Mahatmya illustrating Devi’s adventures in detail became increasingly popular into the 19th century.

Durga’s Powers

Symbolized by her multiple arms each of which carries a different god’s weapon: the trident of Shiva, the disk of Vishnu; the conch and noose of the god Varuna; the spear of god Agni; the bow and arrow of the god Vayu; the thunderbolt of the god Indra and the bell worn by his elephant; the scepter of the judge of death and the sword and shield of the god Yama; and the axe of the god Vishvakarman, along with other weapons and armor.

Durga Puja

Durga puja celebrates Durga’s power and victory over the demon buffalo Mahisha.

veda

A collection of ancient texts believed to be revealed through the vision of seers.

Mahabharata

Sanskrit for “Great Stories of the Bharatas”, is the Hindu epic that narrates the great war between two rival clans: the five Pandava brothers and the hundred Kauravas.

Ramayana

An epic composed around the middle of the first millennium B.C., the Ramayana is story of Vishnu descending to earth in the form of Rama, a heroic prince, who rids the world of the ten-headed demon king Ravana. Rama’s wife, Sita, is revered as the model wife.

Chamunda

Nepal, 14th century. Copper, gemstones, traces of pigment, and gilt. Lent by the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, General Acquisitions Fund.

This tiny Nepalese Devi, in her terrifying cosmic form as Chamunda, is one of the most arresting, macabre, and imaginative of images; it is both iconographically complex and technically demanding. With a trio of human skulls as her seat and a cadaver as her footrest, the emaciated form of Chamunda is richly adorned with conventional ornaments as well as a stupendous garland of severed heads suspended by their hair.

A bear’s skin is tied over Chamunda’s clinging skirt, with its head and legs dangling beside her buttocks. She wears the skin of an elephant as a cape and grasps two of the animal’s feet in her uppermost hands. In her other hands she brandishes an array of weapons and awe-inspiring objects. Devi manifested herself as this menacing form to combat the powerful demon generals Chanda and Munda, whom she slayed after a fierce battle

Kali Drinks the Blood of Raktabija

Folio from a Devi Mahatmya. India, Punjab Hills, Guler, ca. 1780. Opaque watercolor on paper. Lent by Mr. and Mrs. John Gilmore Ford.

Raktabija appears twice in the painting. In the upper quadrant we see him fighting with numerous dancing demons who spring from his blood; to the lower right, his twisted torso lies bloodless and conquered.

Jain goddess Sarasvati.

This image of Sarasvati, goddess of music and learning, was carved in 1153. The four-armed goddess holds stylized lotuses (symbols of purity) in both upper hands; one lower hand, now broken, would have held a manuscript, the other was probably lowered in the wish-granting gesture. The inscription on its pedestal notes that when the original image, created one hundred years earlier, suffered irreparable damage, an officer named Parashurama commissioned a sculptor named Jagadeva to create this replacement. Since few artists from ancient India are known by name, this image serves as a valuable document.

Sarasvati is venerated in several religions in India. This image was created for a temple of the Jains, a faith that originated in the fifth century B.C. The exquisite goddess, approachable by all who seek knowledge and musical skill, is testimony to the skill of the otherwise unknown sculptor Jadadeva, who, in the words of the inscription, “aspired for fame.”

Sarasvati

Glowing tones of rich emerald, carmine, and gold animate this simple icon of Sarasvati, the goddess of learning and music. She is draped in an open-ended garland of pink flowers and holds the lute-like vina, a rectangular palm-leaf manuscript, and a writing implement. Devotees, particularly children starting school, and students of all ages, worship Sarasvati as the source of knowledge. As the goddess of music she is particularly sacred to those who sing or play musical instruments. This painted image was made for a family shrine in the Mysore region of southern India during the early nineteenth century

Pavarti and Ganesha

This charming painting shows goddess Parvati suckling baby Ganesha as the infant places his hand upon her other breast. Elephant-headed Ganesha, an important and beloved deity worshiped at the start of any enterprise, is usually depicted as an adult. Here, the artist portrays Ganesha as an infant to emphasize Parvati’s maternal love. Images of a nursing mother and child are rare in India and it is likely that the iconography was borrowed from European depictions of the Virgin Mary and the infant Christ that entered India beginning in the sixteenth century. This image was probably painted in the early nineteenth-century in Jaipur, a Hindu kingdom located in eastern Rajasthan, not far from Delhi.

River Goddess Ganga on Her Fish Mount.

The goddess Ganga, garbed in pink-tinged white garments and holding aloft a water pot and lotus flower, sits on a large fish in the midst of a Himalayan pool. Ganga is the personification of the Ganges, India’s sacred river. The cool silvery tones of the mountain peaks, flowing waters, and the fair-skinned goddess on her vehicle evoke the pure waters she represents. The goddess descended from the heavens into the Himalayas and from there she flowed into the Indian plains. Ganga is thus a bridge from the heavens to the earth, and devotees who bathe in the river or are cremated by its banks are released from the cycle of mundane existence. This painting, one of a series with similar borders of pink lozenges within rectangular cartouches, was produced in the early nineteenth century for the Hindu ruler of Mandi, a small kingdom in the Punjab Hills.

Vasudhara, Goddess of Abundance

Like her Hindu counterpart Lakshmi, Vasudhara is the Buddhist goddess of wealth, good fortune, and abundance. She is one of the most popular household deities of Nepal, implored for earthly riches as well as for fertility of field and womb. In this image, the six-armed goddess is seated at ease, holding four precious, life-sustaining symbols: a book of knowledge, a sheaf of grain, an auspicious water-filled vessel, and a cluster of jewels. She is richly attired and wears a towering ceremonial crown. A rare feature of the image is the fact that the exact date, 1082, is mentioned in the four-line inscription on the back of the lotus pedestal recording its donation, presumably to a monastic chapel.

Tara the Savioress

Tara, savioress and goddess of compassion, is a deity of immense significance among Buddhists. Her name is derived from the verb tara, meaning “to cross,” for she enables the devotee to cross the ocean of existence. Supplicants chiefly approach Tara for protection, but also make requests for material benefits. In this splendid example of Nepalese metalwork, with its characteristic inlay of semiprecious stones, Tara is depicted as a slender maiden of benign expression. She is regally ornamented with a flamboyant, jewel-encrusted crown secured by elaborate, fluttering ribbons, and her lotus is seen at her left shoulder. Her hands are imprinted with auspicious symbols; one makes the gesture of teaching, while the other is lowered in the wish-granting gesture. Although clearly made by Nepalese hands, this image was either commissioned by a Tibetan or made for the Tibetan market, for the gold and color applied to Tara’s face reflect Tibetan practice.

Ambika

This exquisite little bronze image dating to the ninth century, shows Ambika seated on a double-lotus set upon a tall pedestal. One infant stands playfully in her lap while the second sits cross-legged on the opposite side beside her lotus throne. With one hand she supports a child and with the other holds a bunch of mangoes. The articulation of the limbs and the detailed treatment of the jewelry and drapery pattern reflect the work of a master artist. Most likely the bronze was commissioned for a home shrine, perhaps that of the devotee included along the lower left support of the pedestal.

Radha and Krishna Dressed in Each Other’s Clothes (Lilahava)

Standing with a symmetrical landscape of yellow flowering creepers emerging from the greenery of trees, Radha, holding Krishna’s flute, has donned her divine lover’s peacock-feather crown and saffron-colored dhoti. Blue-complexioned Krishna, in turn, wears Radha’s earrings, red skirt, blouse, and transparent shawl. Holding hands, the two gaze into one another’s eyes.

This unique visual motif of the clothing exchange serves as a metaphor for Radha and Krishna’s shared essence. Radha’s and Krishna’s donning of each other’s garments signifies that the two are identical, as is suggested in this verse by an unknown poet.

She wears his peacock feather,
he dons her lovely, delicate crown;
She sports his yellow garment,
he wraps himself in her beautiful sari
How charming the very sight of it. . .
The daughter of Vrsabhanu [Radha] turns [into] Nanda’s son [Krishna],
and Nanda’s son, Vrsabhanu’s girl.
(Srivasta Goswami, trans. The Divine Consort, 87)

The Sage’s Wife Clothes Sita

During their exile in the forest, Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana arrive at the hermitage of the sage Atri, represented by a simple hut amidst trees draped with flowering vines. Seated beneath a tree, from which hangs a shawl, the meditating sage is seen holding his prayer beads. The tranquility of the setting is further enhanced by the tame deer and the sacred tulsi (basil) plant.

Within the hut, Sita meets with the sage’s wife, Anasuya, herself an illustrious ascetic. Anasuya approves of Sita’s accompanying Rama into the forest and blesses her with the gifts of heavenly raiment that will never wear out, fine jewelry, a garland, and an unguent that would guard against the rigors of the forest climate. We see Sita twice. In the first appearance she receives the gift of clothes from Anasuya and exchanges her leaf-and-bark dress for a red skirt and blue shawl; in her second appearance she displays the gift to Rama.

Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana in the Forest

For over two millennia, the famed Ramayana has been told and retold in many regional versions. Painted manuscripts of the epic were repeatedly commissioned by Hindu monarchs. This folio depicts the forest exile of Rama, Sita, and Rama’s brother Lakshmana, who left the kingdom clad in the stark bark-and-leaf garments of ascetics. Beneath a tree’s richly detailed greenery, Rama and Sita exchange a look of ardent affection as Sita proffers a meal in a leaf bowl to Rama. In spite of his repose, Rama keeps his sword on his lap and a bow by his side, while his quiver of arrows hangs from a nearby branch. To the left, Lakshmana attentively skins a black buck in preparation for a meal of roasted venison kebabs. The naturalistic modeling of graceful figures in soft colors, depicted against the undulating hills of the surrounding countryside, situate these mythic events within the region of the Punjab Hills.

The Disrobing of Draupadi

In this evocation of a momentous scene from the Mahabharata epic, the imperious expression and outstretched arm of the Kaurava prince Duryodhana direct attention to the miracle unfolding below. Duryodhana’s brother Dushasana forcibly attempts to disrobe Draupadi in the center of the assembly hall. Draupadi’s husbands, the Pandavas, who have lost her as well as their kingdom in a crooked game of dice, sit helplessly to the right.

As Dushasana repeatedly tries to strip Draupadi, Krishna’s divine grace provides her with an unending length of material as a sari, thus sparing her further humiliation. The episode of the dice game and the disrobing of Draupadi is the most important drama enacted in an eighteen-night festival held in many towns and cities. This inauspicious event, which tarnishes Draupadi’s honor, marks her metamorphosis from contented wife into vengeful goddess.

Draupadi and Ashvatthaman

This story from the final part of the epic Mahabharata features Ashvatthaman, a Kaurava soldier who massacred Draupadi’s sleeping sons in a loathsome and infamous manner. The Pandavas spare Ashvatthaman’s life but punish him by removing the miraculous protective jewel crest that has been embedded in his forehead since birth. They also curse him to spend thousands of years in pain, shunned by humans and enveloped by the stench of decaying flesh.

The painting shows Draupadi sitting with her husbands, the five Pandavas, within an orange chamber, her upraised hand indicating that she is speaking. Initially Draupadi demanded the death of the murderer but finally agreed to the lesser punishment out of respect of Ashvatthaman’s father. Outside the pavilion, we see Ashvatthaman skulking away with his turban bedraggled and head bleeding from the removal of his jeweled crest.

Lotus-Clad Radha and Krishna

Clad entirely in lotus petals and sitting on lotus thrones, Radha and Krishna here gaze intently into each other’s eyes. Images of Radha and Krishna in flower adornment (phulsajjya) are somewhat rare, and the absence of inscription to accompany such paintings prevents a precise definition of the significance of the iconographic formula. Lotuses, however, are multivalent symbols with a long history of use in the religious imagery of the Indian subcontinent. Since lotuses rise gleaming and fresh out of muddy ponds, they generally represent fertility and purity. The lotus-petal garments further suggest a common act of devotional worship through the offering of flowers to the gods. Within the specific context of the worship of Radha and Krishna, the lotus may refer to the blissful union of the two in the land of Brindavan, Krishna’s childhood home. Pilgrimage maps often depicted Brindavan in the shape of a lotus. Radha’s lotus braid is a charming extra detail added by the artist.

Radha and Krishna Entwined

This folk style image of Radha and Krishna indicates the extent to which their legend with its easy charm and immediate appeal, has spread through various levels of society in India. The image of Radha entwining herself around Krishna is a charming piece that captures the charismatic quality of their love. While Krishna plays upon his flute (now missing), Radha creeps up behind him and presses herself against him. She envelops him in embrace, wrapping one leg around him and drawing him close with both arms. This exquisitely modeled twosome is an arresting presentation of Radha’s utterly rapturous love for Krishna.

Seven sisters on a pedestal

Seven female figures representing the seven sisters (sat-bahini) here stand in a row, their arms wrapped around one another’s backs in folk-dance formation. Since prehistoric times the number seven has had mystical significance in India. It denotes multiplicity and plurality and is widely associated with cyclic renewal. In western India groups of seven water nymphs are propitiated to protect women from infertility and miscarriages.

In southern India, the sapta kannagis (seven maidens) are considered the tutelary deities of water tanks. In tribal Bastar, where young people often live in dormitories called ghotul, the seven sisters are looked upon as protectors of adolescent girls. The divine maidens have individual names, which are often conferred as titles of honor upon the resident girls. These bronze figurines depicting the seven divine maidens may also refer to the girls engaged in ritual dances in their honor.

Durga beneath a Sunburst Medallion.

Beneath a large sunburst medallion, a triumphant four-armed Durga stands over a decapitated buffalo. The zigzag shaft of her trident simulates a thunderbolt as it pierces the buffalo at her feet while her other hand holds the wretched demon Mahisha. An incongruously small lion attacks the buffalo’s rear. This vigorous rendition of Durga with a disproportionately large head and short skirt is typical of the folk style of Himachal Pradesh in northern India. The large number of Durga images from this region are testimony to the high regard in which she is held.

Durga with Her Family

In eastern India, Durga, the slayer of the buffalo demon, is also visualized as Uma, the consort of Shiva. When the goddess visits her parents’ home during Durga Puja, a ten-day fall festival especially popular in this region, she is accompanied by her children. In this bronze altar, the central figure of Durga slaying the buffalo demon is flanked by the goddesses Lakshmi and Sarasvati, envisioned in this region as Durga’s daughters. Alongside are her sons, Kartikeya standing on his peacock and Ganesha seated on his rat. The griffin head given to Durga’s lion is a regional characteristic.

In this large and complex tableau, each figure is cast individually by the lost-wax process. It juxtaposes Durga’s two contradictory roles–the divine destroyer of the demon and the affectionate daughter and mother.

Elongated goddess

The piquant proportions of this female figure, with its bold deliberate distortions of form, illustrate the sharp contrast that exists between depictions of deities within classical Hinduism and folk religion. Sculptors who make images for the traditional temples work according to textual prescriptions following strict guidelines for the physical proportions of deities, their adornment, and other iconographic details. Folk artisans are unfettered by any such regulations. Their work, believed to be inspired directly by the deities who appear in their dream visions, renders each piece unique. This figure may have been either an icon or equally a votive object that was offered to a goddess. Only the pedestal retains traces of the faint horizontal ribbing that is evidence of the wax-thread process typical of Bastar bronzes.

Female bhuta

This small, stocky image of a bhuta, or supernatural spirit, may represent the goddess Chikku (literally, small one), a petite, demure figure who is reportedly today’s favorite bhuta. She is abundantly ornamented with her hair drawn to one side as a ponytail, and her strikingly stylized facial features giver her an air of austere grandeur. A bowl of sacred ash, known as vibhuti, often rests in her upraised hand.

Female bhuta

This metal image with hands joined in a gesture of adoration is usually placed in home shrines situated in a room at the rear of the house. Only on festival days would such an image be taken out of its seclusion and brought into the square where the Koolam dance is performed. This bhuta has a wide, infectious smile, elaborate jewelry, a topknot pulled to one side of the head, and a skirt whose swirling movement are ingeniously depicted.

Sundari beneath the Mango Tree

Poised beneath a mango tree this exquisite sundari (beauty) ignores the monkey perched on the branch above and reaches up with her right arm to bring down a cluster of ripe fruit into her raised, now-damaged, left hand. According to ancient lore, the sound of a woman’s laughter was all that was needed to induce the mango tree to blossom and bear fruit. This figure speaks of the importance of the theme of woman in ancient India where her presence was believed to confer auspiciousness on any monument. The image emphasized the importance of the feminine, given its associations with the bearing and rearing of children. The female figure was an obvious emblem of fertility and thereby of growth, abundance, and prosperity, hence it was a short step to visualize her as a symbol of all that is auspicious. Carved as a decorative bracket to connect a pillar with the ceiling, this sundari graced the interior of a temple with her auspicious presence. As devotees glanced upward, their gaze would have met at least four such sundaris, creating a joyous atmosphere within the sacred precincts.

Nagini

One of the most striking of a group of early terra-cotta images, this sensuous yet disturbing figure has two serpents wrapped around her body. Her long hair, wound with a braided jeweled fabric, is arranged in a magnificent bun at the back, while her girdle consists of a string of large medallions decorated with a floral design and joined by rounded spacer beads. Despite its diminutive size, the image conveys a striking impression of strength and immensity. The two serpents that casually wind themselves around the body of this superb, although partly damaged, terra-cotta figure suggest her affiliation with semidivine serpent beings, the nagas and naginis. The exact identity of this serpent-related deity is difficult to establish. She seems to be an early prototype of a snake goddess and might be a protective deity invoked for protection again snakes as also against evil and poisons of other kinds.

Yogini with Disciple

In a peaceful remote hermitage, a disciple plays a double-gourded vina for her female guru, who listens attentively to the music with a yoga band around her knees that enables her to retain this yogic posture for long periods. A peacock-feather fly whisk, an attribute of yoginis, lies at her side. Both yoginis wear the salmon-colored robes, rudraksha beaded necklaces, and large earrings (darshani) that are characteristic of ascetics of the Nath sectarian order.

The subdued colors and the sparse composition communicate effectively the peaceful atmosphere of the yoginis retreat. A sandy plain between the silver-gray river and the sky, a simple white hut, and the restrained postures of the two women further enhance the mood of tranquility. This painting was produced in the provincial court of Murshidabad, which rose to power in the eighteenth century, asserting its independence from Mughal rule in Delhi.

Seated Saint Karaikkal Ammaiyar

Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a woman from the merchant, or vaishya, community, lived in the town of Karaikkal sometime in the sixth century. She is one of the sixty-three saints of Shiva from Tamil Nadu. When young and beautiful Punitavati beseeched Shiva to divest her of the burden of her flesh and asked only that she watch him dance into eternity, a miracle occurred. In place of the young woman there stood an emaciated hag, known henceforth as Mother of Karaikkal, or Karaikkal Ammaiyar.

Karraikal Ammaiyar wrote poetry in praise of Shiva. Perhaps her description of herself as the “ghoul of Karaikkal” in the final signature verse of some of her poems was partly responsible for the often fearsome imagery resorted to by the artists. This image portrays her not as a fearsome figure but as a once-beautiful woman who has lost her flesh. Her calm, smiling face expresses her inner peace while she blissfully plays her cymbals and sings to the glory of Shiva.

The ground is damp with liquid marrow–
Skeletal ghouls with sunken eyes
jostle and elbow–
looking furtively around them
extinguishing the fires
with gleeful hearts
they eat half-burned corpses–
There, in that menacing forest
holding fire in his hand
dances our beautiful lord.

(Vidya Dehejia, Antal and Her Path of Love: Poems of a Woman Saint from South India, 1990)

Saint Andal

Saint Andal, a surprisingly versatile poet and devotee of Vishnu, lived in southern India around the year 800. Andal’s poetry is full of the intensity of her longing for union with her chosen lord, Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu. In this image wide-eyed Andal, represented as a garlanded icon standing on a pink lotus, gestures benevolently from a temple niche, and is flanked on both sides by a Vaishnava priest (one devoted to Vishnu) in an attitude of devotion. The gold relief technique, which arose from the application of a paste of sawdust and glue before the design was modeled and gilded, was applied to a cloth surface that was made to adhere to a board pasted upon a wooden support. This image, produced for use in homes, would have hung within a garden shrine or puja room.

O great deep ocean,
the lord entered into you,
mixed and churned you,
deprived you of your nectar.
That lord of illusion
entered into me too,
churned me,
deprived me of my essence.
Go to the serpent who is the lord’s couch,
tell him of my endless sorrow
that he may plead for me.

(Vidya Dehejia, Antal and Her Path of Love: Poems of a Woman Saint from South India, 1990)

Ganesha

One legend narrates that Ganesha was created when Shiva breathed life into the dirt that Parvati rubbed off her body, while Skanda was born from Shiva’s seed preserved by the waters.

Goddess or yakshi

This elegant terra-cotta image of a goddess or semidivine yakshi, created to be a free-standing image on its own plinth, is an engaging figure with naturally shaped breasts, a pinched waist, and broad hips whose girth is emphasized by a wide hip belt made of three strands of beads. Her elaborate jewelry includes rows of heavy bracelets, anklets, body chains, and earrings with huge curved pendants. Her diaphanous lower garment swings out at her ankles and an outer cloth that reaches to her knees is decorated with rows of ornamented tassels. A fan-shaped headdress and the fabric band that decorates her hair complete her accessories. This terra-cotta sculpture was probably created from a mold but the detailed carving of drapery folds and tassels clearly show that they were added after firing. Clay images such as this, while less expensive to produce than those carved from stone, nevertheless reflect a prosperous urban society.

Draupadi and Kunti with the Pandavas

This painting from a manuscript of the Mahabharata epic illustrates an early episode in which the five Pandava brothers, disguised as Brahmin ascetics, have won an archery contest by which they secure the lovely Draupadi as bride and bring her to their mother. Several episodes are depicted on this page in a series of vignettes in which the characters appear repeatedly to indicate the passage of time. Draupadi’s independence and fearless spirit, evident throughout the period, is a product of her upbringing as a warrior’s daughter.

We see Draupadi, the Pandavas, and their mother, Kunti, eating a meal; then their figures are repeated as they lie down to sleep. Draupadi’s brother eavesdrops on their nighttime conversation to ascertain the identity of the ascetics. He then hastens back to report to his father to stop worrying about Draupadi, because the ascetics are indeed princes in disguise. It is quite naturally important that the daughter of a monarch be married to one of royal blood.

Sita in the Hermitage of Valmiki

Rescued from the demon Ravana’s fortress at Lanka, and having proven her fidelity to Rama by emerging unscathed from a test by fire, Sita returns to Ayodhya with her husband, Rama. Back in their northern capital innuendos are cast upon Sita’s fidelity and the morality of Rama’s acceptance of her Rama forthwith instructs his brother Lakshmana to take the pregnant Sita into the forest. At the hermitage of the revered sage Valmiki, Sita gives birth to her twin sons, Lava and Kusha. These events, depicted in this painting, refer to the last episode of the Ramayana.

In the extreme lower left of the painting, Sita enters the hilly landscape following an entourage led by the sage Valmiki. As Sita arrives at the hermitage, her slightly protruding belly reminds us of the condition in which she left Ayodhya. Her subsequent life at the hermitage is presented in several scenes that are distributed throughout the composition and are separated by the rounded contours of reed huts. Sita is seen on three more occasions. At the upper right corner she touches the feet of Valmiki’s wife and asks for sanctuary; immediately below she sits in a hut as an acolyte brings her food; and finally, well after the birth of her twins, she is seen playing with one child as the other jumps into the arms of the silver-haired Valmiki.

Yoginis in a Landscape

In a deep landscape hazily washed with translucent blues, five yoginis, or female ascetics, wearing fine gold-edged muslin and adorned with gold ornaments, hold aloft tiny golden cups of wine while the yogini in the center also holds a stringed musical instrument. Although the artist has depicted the humble possessions of ascetics in precious materials, the yoginis’ wine cups, stringed instrument, and lightly draped shawls refer to yogic practice. Ascetics usually eschew clothing, smear their bodies with ashes, and chant or sing prayers to the accompaniment of a simple instrument such as the single-string ektar shown in this painting. The vast plain depicted in the painting and the delicately limned shrines create an appropriate setting for ascetics who wander between pilgrimage sites or live in isolated retreats, while the coils of lightning in the sky add a touch of severity to the dramatic effect.

The Persian inscription inset along the painting’s lower edge seems to suggest that it was produced for Emperor Jahangir (reigned 1605-27) by the seventeenth-century artist Kesu Khurd. However, the work is not in the style of Kesu Khurd, and the inscription seems to have been added by later artists in admiration of the work of earlier master.

Tantric Devi

In Tantric art Devi appears in varying body configurations, and has many skin colors, facial expressions and symbolic gestures. She may have two, four, or as many as ten arms, and wear a profusion of costumes and ornaments. She may stand with attending figures who express her reflected power, or stand or sit alone. She may be benign and nurturing or a furious protector. The spectrum of images makes the point: while the Goddess is one, she is worshiped as many.

Tantra

While priests may reside in temples in order to care for the needs of the gods and goddesses, the essential aspect of worship is not congregational but an individual’s connection to the deity. In worshiping the goddess it is possible to arouse the divine power, shakti, that lies dormant within individuals in order to make their physical, mental, and psychic selves divine. One method of worship aimed at integrating the physical and spiritual realms is Tantric worship which has characterized much of goddess worship in India. Tantra is a code of rites and practices. Both contemplating Tantric images and creating these images are a form of darshan (seeing) the Goddess.

Dancing Bhadrakali Adored by the Gods

“Praised by Brahma, Madhava, Sharva, Indra
hailed by the three worlds
with laughing face
intoxicated by drinking wine and blood
she dances with delight
Once again she drinks wine–
Reveling in the musical sound of her vina
she sings joyously–
once again she drinks wine
I meditate upon Bhadrakali
with the seed mantra bhaim.“

Bhadrakali, Destroyer of the Universe

“In her lotus like hand she holds
the severed head of the creator of the world
She smiles and sounds satisfied
She devours the mover of the entire universe
Like limp darbha* grass
she holds the bodies of
eternally dark Vishnu and Shiva
I meditate upon Bhadrakali
glowing like new clouds
standing upon a corpse.“

(*a type of grass native to India used in sacred rites.)

Bhadrakali within the Rising Sun

“She loves to reside
in the madala of the rising sun
with a face full as the forest lotus
dark-hued One
with gait graceful as a young swan
breasts high, rounded, and mature
wearing a garland of lotus blossoms
book in hand
clad in yellow garments
standing upon a corpse
She constantly visits the sacrificial space
I praise Bhadrakali
with the seed mantra bhaim.“

Varahi Seated on a Tiger

“Her lotus eyes quiver through drinking wine
Equal in glory to a thousand suns
Seated upon a lion
with ten arms
In my heart praise Varahi”

The Gods Pay Homage to Bhadrakali

“She emerges from the great void
crowned with the crescent moon
face radiant as the full moon
adorned in robes of blue hue.
That Blue One holding a lotus
with a corpse as her seat
is praised by Sharva [Shiva] and the other gods.
She holds a conch shell, sword, goad, and noose
flute, club, sharp blade, and knife.
Lotus-eyed One
I praise Bahdrakali
with the seed mantra bhaim.“

The Goddess Worshiped by Rishi Chyavana

“Her face radiates heat
like that of penance-heated Durga.
Wearing yellow garments
body glowing like a topaz
the four-armed one
sits upon a corpse
in the hermitage of Rishi Chyavana–
I meditate upon Bhadrakali
with the seed mantra bhaim.“